Abstract
This paper outlines a framework for analysis of aggregate effects of international regimes – and demonstrates its relevance in the case of management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) in developing countries. Whereas many regime studies have focused on the effectiveness of international regimes – where effects are measured against the norms and rules of the regimes themselves – aggregate effects of international regimes are here measured against a set of criteria developed independently of the regimes. This approach is considered relevant when two or more regimes interact with regard to an issue area, and none of them cover the totality of measures assumed necessary to solve the problems. It is also relevant when there is scope for regime conflict. The management of PGRFA comprises many issues, and in demonstrating the method, one central issue has been selected: access to PGRFA, which is crucial for food security. The paper identifies the international norms and rules pertaining to access to PGRFA in the period 1992–2004, overlaps in their functional scopes, and the interaction among them. From these regime constellations, assumptions on the aggregate effects for developing countries are derived. These assumptions are in turn tested in case studies from the Philippines, where the aggregate regime effects on access to PGRFA are analysed in terms of policy decisions and goal achievements. Finally, the general relevance of the findings for other developing countries is discussed. A key conclusion is that the aggregate effects of the international regimes in question were largely detrimental to access to PGRFA in developing countries throughout the period studied – despite other intentions behind the individual agreements. The result of these developments is an emerging anti-commons tragedy: a situation where multiple actors have the possibilities to exclude each other from access to these vital resources.
|